When Is the Safest Time for Horses to Graze?

By Dr Duncan Houston

Early morning is often described as the safest time to let a laminitis-prone horse graze. Under the right conditions, pasture carbohydrates are generally lower near sunrise than later in the day.

The problem is that grass does not follow a simple clock.

Cold nights, frost, drought, plant stress, grass species, pasture height and recent weather can all change its carbohydrate content. A severely insulin-dysregulated horse may also produce a dangerous insulin response after grazing at any time of day.

The safest grazing plan therefore starts with the horse, not the clock.

Quick Answer

Pasture nonstructural carbohydrates are often lowest near sunrise following a warm night and highest during the late afternoon or evening. However, this pattern may not apply after frost, freezing temperatures or other plant stress.

For horses with insulin dysregulation, equine metabolic syndrome or previous laminitis, there may be no reliably safe grazing time. Total grass intake, the horse’s insulin response and current hoof health matter more than a fixed early-morning turnout window. (OSU Extension Service)

When Is Early-Morning Grazing Usually Lower Risk?

Early morning is more likely to offer lower pasture carbohydrate concentrations when:

• The previous night remained reasonably warm

• There was no frost

• The grass is actively growing

• The pasture is not drought-stressed

• The horse has no history of laminitis

• The horse does not have significant insulin dysregulation

• Total grazing intake is still controlled

Grass creates sugars through photosynthesis during daylight. Overnight, an actively growing plant uses some of this stored energy for growth and maintenance. Carbohydrate concentrations therefore commonly fall overnight and reach their lowest point near sunrise.

Studies comparing morning and evening pasture have often found evening NSC concentrations approximately two to three percentage points higher, although much larger differences have sometimes been measured. (OSU Extension Service)

This makes dawn or early morning a comparatively lower-risk period, not a guarantee of safe grazing.

When Is Early Morning Not Safe?

Early-morning turnout may still be dangerous when:

• The night was colder than approximately 40°F or 4°C

• Frost occurred

• The grass is drought-stressed

• The pasture is heavily overgrazed

• Bright sunlight occurred during a cold previous day

• Rapid spring or autumn growth is occurring

• The horse has severe insulin dysregulation

• The horse has previously developed pasture-associated laminitis

• The horse is already showing foot soreness

Cold weather slows plant growth and energy use. Sugars produced during the previous day may therefore remain within the plant overnight instead of being consumed for growth.

On a cold or frosty morning, the usual overnight fall in carbohydrate concentration may not occur. Grass can consequently remain high in sugar at sunrise, precisely when owners have been told it should be safest. (OSU Extension Service)

Early morning is only the better option when the weather and the horse make it the better option.

Pasture Risk Through the Day

Time or condition	Likely pasture pattern	Practical meaning
Near sunrise after a warm night	NSC often near its daily low	Lower relative risk, but not automatically safe
Morning after frost or a cold night	NSC may remain elevated	Do not rely on morning turnout
Late morning to afternoon	NSC generally increases with photosynthesis	Risk usually rises
Late afternoon and evening	NSC often near its daily peak	Commonly the highest-risk period
Warm overnight period	Plant may use stored carbohydrates	Concentration may fall towards dawn
Drought or cold stress	Growth slows and carbohydrates may accumulate	Grass may be risky despite looking sparse or dormant

There is no universal rule that 4 am to 10 am is safe. Sunrise, temperature, sunlight, grass species and growing conditions differ between regions and seasons. (OSU Extension Service)

Why Can Pasture Trigger Laminitis?

The main concern in naturally occurring pasture-associated laminitis is usually an excessive insulin response.

Pasture nonstructural carbohydrates include:

• Glucose

• Fructose

• Sucrose

• Fructans

• Starch

Sugars and starch can stimulate glucose and insulin release. In an insulin-dysregulated horse, the pancreas may release an abnormally large amount of insulin after eating pasture.

Sustained or repeated hyperinsulinaemia can damage the laminae that attach the hoof wall to the coffin bone. Hyperinsulinaemia-associated laminitis is now considered the most common form of laminitis in the general horse and pony population. (idppid.com)

Insulin-dysregulated ponies have been shown to develop substantially greater insulin responses than metabolically healthy ponies within only four hours of pasture grazing. (PMC)

Are Fructans the Main Problem?

Fructans are relevant, but they are not the entire pasture-laminitis story.

Fructans are largely fermented within the hindgut. Very large experimental fructan doses can cause microbial disruption and carbohydrate-overload laminitis.

Naturally occurring pasture-associated laminitis, however, is more commonly linked to the horse’s abnormal insulin response to the total pasture carbohydrate intake.

Focusing only on fructans can cause owners to miss the more important questions:

• Does the horse have insulin dysregulation?

• How much grass is being eaten?

• How high does insulin rise after grazing?

• Is the horse gaining weight?

• Has the horse previously had laminitis?

The grass matters. The horse’s metabolic response matters more.

Which Horses Are Most at Risk?

Pasture access deserves particular caution in horses and ponies with:

• Previous laminitis

• Confirmed insulin dysregulation

• Equine metabolic syndrome

• PPID accompanied by insulin dysregulation

• Obesity

• A thick or firm neck crest

• Regional fat deposits

• Rapid weight gain on grass

• Recurrent unexplained foot soreness

• A family or breed tendency towards easy weight gain

Ponies, miniature horses and many native breeds are commonly efficient at using forage, but any breed can develop insulin dysregulation.

A horse also does not need to be visibly obese. Lean horses can still have an abnormal insulin response and remain at risk of laminitis. The Equine Endocrinology Group identifies insulin dysregulation as the consistent feature driving laminitis risk, while obesity and regional fat deposits are common but not universal. (idppid.com)

What About Horses With PPID?

PPID does not automatically mean that every blade of grass is dangerous.

The main pasture-laminitis concern is whether the horse also has insulin dysregulation. Many older horses with PPID do, while others retain relatively normal insulin regulation.

A horse with PPID should therefore have its insulin status assessed rather than being placed on a grazing plan based only on its ACTH result or pergolide treatment.

Pergolide manages PPID. It does not necessarily normalise insulin regulation or make unrestricted pasture safe.

Is Pasture Turnout Still Good for Horses?

Yes. Pasture or paddock turnout can support:

• Free movement

• Social contact

• Foraging behaviour

• Exercise

• Mental stimulation

• Reduced frustration

• Reduced abnormal or stereotypic behaviour

A 2024 field study of international sport horses found that greater access to forage, free movement and contact with other horses was associated with better behavioural welfare indicators. (Frontiers)

However, turnout and grass access are not the same thing.

A metabolically high-risk horse can still receive movement, social contact and environmental enrichment through:

• A dry lot

• A grass-free track

• A surfaced paddock

• Group turnout with measured low-NSC hay

• Several low-energy forage stations

• Controlled in-hand or ridden exercise once sound

The answer should not be permanent isolation in a stable merely because pasture is unsafe.

Can Short Grazing Periods Make Pasture Safe?

Not necessarily.

Horses can increase their grazing rate when pasture access is restricted. A horse given one hour of turnout may not graze at the same relaxed rate as a horse expecting to remain outside all day.

Research has shown that horses with shorter pasture access can consume grass more rapidly, meaning restricted time does not always reduce intake as much as owners expect. (ResearchGate)

This is why:

• One hour of grazing is not automatically a small meal

• A hungry horse may gorge immediately

• Feeding measured hay before turnout may reduce urgency

• A muzzle or restricted grazing area may be more reliable than timing alone

• Body weight and insulin response still need monitoring

A pony presented with sixty minutes at the buffet may become impressively efficient.

Do Grazing Muzzles Work?

They can substantially reduce pasture intake, but the effect is highly variable.

In one four-pony study, a particular muzzle reduced pasture dry-matter intake by approximately 77% to 83% during three-hour grazing sessions. The same study showed that grass height affected how easily ponies accessed grass through the muzzle. (Academia)

Other research has found average reductions closer to 30%, depending on the muzzle, horse and forage species. (University of Minnesota Extension)

It is therefore inaccurate to promise that every muzzle reduces intake by 80%.

A Muzzle Is Most Useful When

• The horse is allowed some pasture by the veterinarian

• Intake needs to be reduced

• Maintaining movement and social turnout is important

• The horse can learn to use the muzzle

• The equipment is checked every day

• Weight and hoof comfort are monitored

A Muzzle Is Not Enough When

• The horse has active laminitis

• Insulin dysregulation is severe or uncontrolled

• Pasture repeatedly causes large insulin responses

• The horse cannot drink properly through the muzzle

• The muzzle causes wounds or dental damage

• The horse removes or defeats it

• The horse remains overweight despite its use

The 2024 Equine Endocrinology Group recommendations advise restricting or eliminating pasture in severe insulin dysregulation. Grazing can be reconsidered only after laminitis has resolved and the horse’s insulin response has been reassessed. (idppid.com)

How Should a Grazing Muzzle Fit?

A properly fitted muzzle should:

• Allow the horse to open its mouth

• Allow normal breathing

• Allow easy access to water

• Leave roughly two fingers of room around the nose

• Avoid constant pressure against the lips and chin

• Remain secure without being dangerously tight

• Have an appropriate safety-release mechanism

Check at least daily for:

• Rubs

• Hair loss

• Swelling

• Broken skin

• Dental wear

• Damaged straps

• Enlarged grazing holes

• Difficulty drinking

• Feed becoming trapped inside

Current university guidance notes that horses should be able to breathe and drink without restriction and that evidence has not yet established one universally best time of day or duration for muzzle use. (University of Georgia Equine Program)

Is Early Morning the Best Time to Remove the Muzzle?

There is not enough evidence to provide one universal schedule.

Removing the muzzle in the early morning may coincide with lower grass NSC after a warm night. However:

• Horses often graze actively around dawn

• A horse may compensate by eating rapidly

• Frost can keep morning carbohydrates high

• Muzzle effectiveness changes with pasture height

• Some insulin-dysregulated horses remain unsafe even during lower-NSC periods

A safer plan is usually to decide first whether the horse should graze at all, then use a combination of:

• Muzzle

• Controlled pasture area

• Weather awareness

• Measured turnout

• Body-weight monitoring

• Digital-pulse checks

• Post-grazing insulin testing

The clock is one management tool. It is not the treatment plan.

Does Grass Height Change the Safest Grazing Time?

Yes, but not predictably enough to use height alone.

Very short or overgrazed grass may:

• Expose carbohydrate-rich basal stems

• Be under environmental stress

• Offer highly palatable fresh regrowth

• Encourage grazing close to soil

• Reduce total available biomass

Tall pasture may:

• Allow larger bites

• Increase total intake

• Be lush and actively growing

• Provide many calories despite moderate NSC concentration

One controlled study found that recently mown tall fescue maintained at approximately six inches produced lower soluble carbohydrate concentrations and a smaller insulin response than grass measuring approximately 12 to 16 inches. The horses were healthy, however, and the short pasture was not severely scalped or chronically overgrazed. (Ovid)

Grass height is therefore useful information, but it cannot tell you whether a paddock is safe.

Should Pasture Be Mown for a Laminitis-Prone Horse?

Pasture should be mown according to the needs of the grass species and local climate, not according to one universal four-inch rule.

Mowing may:

• Control weeds

• Prevent grass becoming rank

• Encourage even utilisation

• Improve pasture management

Repeatedly mowing extremely short may:

• Stress the plant

• Reduce root reserves

• Encourage weeds

• Expose basal stems

• Create bare soil

• Reduce pasture resilience

Mowing is pasture management. It is not treatment for equine metabolic syndrome.

The safest grass height varies with species, season and regional agronomy. Seek local pasture-management guidance while your veterinarian manages the horse’s metabolic risk.

How Does Season Change the Safest Grazing Time?

Spring

Spring can be particularly difficult because grass may be:

• Rapidly growing

• Highly palatable

• Rich in readily available carbohydrate

• Capable of supporting very rapid intake

Horses moving from dry winter forage to spring pasture also undergo a major dietary change.

Introduce grazing gradually, monitor weight and assess insulin regulation before unrestricted turnout in an at-risk horse.

Summer

During consistently warm conditions, pasture carbohydrates are often lower near sunrise and higher later in the day.

However, summer pasture may become risky during:

• Drought

• Cool sunny periods

• Rapid regrowth after rain

• Heavy fertilisation followed by growth

• Restricted turnout causing rapid consumption

Hot weather also does not reduce the calories contained in lush pasture. A horse can remain metabolically at risk even when the daily carbohydrate pattern is predictable.

Autumn

Autumn can be as risky as spring.

Cool nights combined with bright sunny days can allow sugars to accumulate. Horses may also be entering autumn already overweight after months of grazing.

Recent research following native-breed ponies found that pasture exposure and resulting obesity were associated with the development of insulin dysregulation over time. Two of the seven ponies developed mild laminitis during the study. (PubMed)

Winter

Brown, dormant or frost-damaged pasture is not automatically sugar-free.

Cold conditions can stop plant growth while carbohydrates remain within the lower stems. A horse may also graze much closer to the ground when little grass is available.

For a high-risk horse, winter pasture should be evaluated as carefully as spring pasture.

What Is the Safest Plan for a Healthy, Low-Risk Horse?

A healthy horse with normal body condition, no previous laminitis and no evidence of insulin dysregulation can usually graze with ordinary sensible management.

A practical plan includes:

• Introduce new pasture gradually

• Avoid sudden all-day turnout after dry-lot housing

• Maintain normal body condition

• Monitor neck-crest development

• Check hooves and digital pulses regularly

• Provide water and salt

• Avoid severely overgrazed paddocks

• Adjust grazing if weight increases

• Use early-morning turnout when a lower-NSC period is desirable and the previous night was warm

Even healthy horses can gain excessive weight on unrestricted rich pasture. “Low risk” does not mean unlimited calories stop counting.

What Is the Safest Plan for an Easy Keeper?

An easy keeper without diagnosed insulin dysregulation may benefit from:

• Baseline insulin testing

• Weighed body and neck measurements

• Controlled pasture access

• A grazing muzzle

• Strip grazing

• A grass-restricted track

• Measured hay when off pasture

• Regular exercise

• Monthly body-condition reassessment

Do not wait for laminitis before investigating a progressively enlarging neck crest.

What Is the Safest Plan for a Horse With Insulin Dysregulation?

The initial plan commonly involves:

• Restricting or eliminating pasture

• Using a dry lot or grass-free track

• Feeding measured low-NSC hay

• Avoiding grain and sugary treats

• Establishing gradual weight loss where needed

• Exercising only when the horse is sound

• Treating concurrent PPID where present

• Monitoring insulin and hoof comfort

The 2024 Equine Endocrinology Group recommends hay below approximately 10% NSC for many affected horses and restricting or eliminating grazing according to the severity of insulin dysregulation. (idppid.com)

A severely affected horse may not have a safe pasture time.

That is not failure. It is recognition that movement and social turnout need to be provided without grass.

Can an Insulin-Dysregulated Horse Ever Return to Pasture?

Some can.

Pasture should only be reconsidered after:

• Active laminitis has resolved

• The horse is comfortable

• Hoof support is established

• Body condition has improved where necessary

• Insulin dysregulation has been reassessed

• The veterinarian considers a controlled trial reasonable

The 2024 Equine Endocrinology Group recommends gradual reintroduction with regular insulin monitoring. Post-grazing insulin can be measured after approximately two hours of pasture access to assess the response of that individual horse to the current grass. (idppid.com)

A trial may involve:

1. A small or controlled pasture area

2. A properly fitted grazing muzzle

3. Hay before turnout

4. Brief initial access

5. Careful weather selection

6. Digital-pulse and hoof checks

7. Weight monitoring

8. Repeat insulin measurement

If insulin becomes excessive or foot soreness returns, pasture access should stop.

Do not wait for a second obvious laminitis episode to confirm that the trial failed.

How Do Vets Assess Pasture Laminitis Risk?

Clinical Examination

Your veterinarian may assess:

• Body-condition score

• Neck-crest score

• Regional fat deposits

• Hoof heat

• Digital pulses

• Gait and turning

• Hoof-wall rings

• Previous laminitis changes

• Current diet and pasture access

Insulin Testing

Tests may include:

• Resting or basal insulin

• Oral sugar test

• Oral glucose test

• Post-feeding insulin

• Post-grazing insulin

A normal resting insulin concentration does not always exclude insulin dysregulation. Some horses only show an abnormal response after consuming carbohydrate, which is why dynamic testing is often more informative. (idppid.com)

PPID Testing

Older horses or those with compatible signs may also need ACTH testing.

PPID and insulin dysregulation commonly occur together but should be assessed separately.

Hoof Radiographs

Radiographs may be recommended when there is:

• Current laminitis

• Previous unexplained foot soreness

• Hoof-wall distortion

• A stretched white line

• Abnormal hoof growth

• Concern about coffin-bone rotation or sinking

Can Pasture Be Tested for Sugar?

Yes, but pasture testing has limitations.

Fresh grass changes rapidly according to:

• Time of collection

• Temperature

• Sunlight

• Weather during previous days

• Plant stress

• Grass species

• Maturity

• Recent mowing

• Fertilisation

• Which part of the plant was sampled

A result from one morning may not accurately describe the same field several afternoons later.

Official forage guidance therefore considers pasture testing less dependable for day-to-day management than testing conserved hay. (OSU Extension Service)

Pasture analysis may still be useful for comparing fields or identifying broad trends. It cannot guarantee that grazing is safe for an insulin-dysregulated horse.

How Worried Should You Be?

Low Risk

The horse:

• Has no laminitis history

• Maintains normal body condition

• Has no suspicious neck crest or fat pads

• Has normal insulin regulation where tested

• Does not gain weight rapidly on grass

What to do: introduce pasture gradually, avoid severe overgrazing and monitor condition regularly.

Moderate Risk

The horse:

• Is an easy keeper

• Is gaining weight

• Is becoming cresty

• Has unknown insulin status

• Has been mildly footsore in the past

• Is entering lush spring or autumn pasture

What to do: arrange insulin testing and begin controlling grass intake before unrestricted turnout continues.

High Risk

The horse:

• Has confirmed insulin dysregulation

• Has equine metabolic syndrome

• Has PPID with abnormal insulin

• Has previous pasture-associated laminitis

• Produces a marked post-grazing insulin response

• Remains obese despite restricted turnout

What to do: remove unrestricted pasture access. Use a dry-lot, track or controlled grazing plan under veterinary guidance.

Critical

The horse:

• Has strong digital pulses

• Is reluctant to walk or turn

• Takes short, pottery steps

• Repeatedly shifts weight

• Lies down more than usual

• Adopts a rocked-back stance

What to do: remove the horse from grass and seek emergency veterinary care.

When Is This an Emergency?

Laminitis is an emergency because damage to the hoof laminae can begin before the horse becomes dramatically lame.

Call your veterinarian immediately if your horse develops:

• Sudden soreness affecting both front feet

• Short, stiff or stilted steps

• Reluctance to turn

• Strong or bounding digital pulses

• Increased hoof heat combined with lameness

• Repeated weight shifting

• Increased lying down

• A rocked-back stance

• Refusal to walk

• Rapid deterioration after pasture turnout

What To Do While Waiting

1. Remove the horse from pasture.

2. Place the horse on deep, supportive bedding.

3. Keep movement to a minimum.

4. Do not repeatedly trot or walk the horse.

5. Remove grain, sweet feed and sugary treats.

6. Provide clean water.

7. Provide only veterinarian-approved forage.

8. Record when signs began and recent grazing exposure.

9. Prepare for hoof radiographs and farriery support if advised.

Do not starve the horse. Laminitis management requires an appropriate low-NSC forage plan, not complete feed withdrawal.

What Else Can Look Like Laminitis?

Foot soreness after grazing may still have another cause.

Important differentials include:

• Sole bruising

• Hoof abscess

• Thin soles

• Recent trimming or shoeing

• Road concussion

• Navicular-region pain

• Arthritis

• Tendon or ligament injury

• Foot penetration

• Supporting-limb pain

Laminitis becomes more likely when:

• More than one foot is affected

• Both front feet are sore

• Digital pulses are increased

• Turning is particularly uncomfortable

• The horse shifts weight repeatedly

• There is a relevant metabolic or pasture history

A hoof abscess often causes one markedly painful foot. Laminitis more commonly produces a symmetrical or multi-foot pattern, although exceptions occur.

What Should You Do Next?

1. Stop Using Clock Time as the Only Safety Test

Record the weather, night temperature, frost, season and pasture condition.

2. Assess the Horse’s Metabolic Risk

Review:

• Previous laminitis

• Body condition

• Neck crest

• Fat pads

• Breed or type

• Age

• PPID signs

• Current foot comfort

3. Arrange Insulin Testing

Ask whether basal insulin is sufficient or whether a dynamic oral sugar test is needed.

4. Decide Whether Pasture Is Appropriate

A high-risk horse may need grass-free turnout before any timed grazing is considered.

5. Feed Hay Before Controlled Turnout

A measured amount of appropriate hay can reduce hunger and immediate gorging.

6. Control Intake

Use the most appropriate combination of:

• Grazing muzzle

• Strip grazing

• Track system

• Small paddock

• Dry lot

• Limited pasture

• Measured hay

7. Monitor the Horse

Keep records of:

• Weight

• Body-condition score

• Neck-crest score

• Grazing duration

• Muzzle use

• Digital pulses

• Hoof comfort

• Insulin results

8. Review the Plan After Every Seasonal Change

A schedule that worked in midsummer may be unsuitable after autumn frost or spring growth.

Common Grazing Mistakes

Assuming Early Morning Is Always Safe

Morning pasture may remain high in carbohydrates after a cold or frosty night.

Focusing Only on Fructans

The horse’s insulin response to the total carbohydrate intake is usually the more important clinical concern.

Assuming Short Turnout Means Low Intake

Horses can substantially increase their grazing rate when access is restricted.

Treating a Muzzle as a Guarantee

Muzzle effectiveness varies, and some horses remain unsafe on pasture despite one.

Turning a Horse Out Hungry

A hungry horse may graze extremely rapidly. Appropriate hay before turnout can reduce this urgency.

Restricting Grass but Ignoring Weight Gain

A horse may still consume enough pasture to gain weight even during limited turnout.

Keeping a High-Risk Horse Permanently Stabled

Grass may be unsafe, but movement, social contact and foraging opportunities can still be provided in a dry lot or track system.

Exercising a Footsore Horse for Weight Loss

Active laminitis requires rest and hoof support. Exercise begins only after the horse is comfortable and cleared by the veterinarian.

How Can Pasture-Associated Laminitis Be Prevented?

• Test horses with previous laminitis or suspicious fat distribution.

• Maintain a healthy body condition.

• Monitor the neck crest and regional fat pads.

• Introduce new pasture gradually.

• Avoid relying on early morning after frost.

• Restrict grass during rapid spring and autumn growth.

• Use grazing muzzles when appropriate.

• Maintain healthy pasture rather than chronic overgrazing.

• Provide grass-free turnout for severely affected horses.

• Feed analysed low-NSC hay when needed.

• Keep regular veterinary and farriery appointments.

• Check digital pulses routinely.

• Respond immediately to foot soreness.

• Reassess insulin after dietary or pasture changes.

The safest plan is made before the horse becomes sore, not while everyone is standing in the paddock arguing about whether the grass looks sugary.

FAQs About the Best Time for Horses to Graze

Is early morning always the safest grazing time?

No. Early morning is often lower in NSC after a warm night, but grass may remain high after frost, freezing temperatures or other plant stress.

Is overnight grazing safer than afternoon grazing?

It may be under warm conditions because pasture carbohydrates generally decline overnight. However, the horse may consume a large amount during an extended overnight period, and cold nights can prevent the expected decline.

Should a horse with EMS be allowed to graze?

Some well-controlled horses may eventually tolerate carefully monitored grazing. Horses with active laminitis or severe insulin dysregulation commonly require pasture elimination initially.

Do grazing muzzles prevent laminitis?

No. They can reduce intake, sometimes substantially, but the effect varies and they do not guarantee a safe insulin response.

Can a horse with PPID safely graze?

It depends largely on insulin regulation, previous laminitis and body condition. PPID horses should have their insulin status assessed before pasture access is considered safe.

Final Thoughts

There is no single safest grazing time for every horse.

Near sunrise after a warm night is often the lowest-carbohydrate part of the day. That makes it a useful option for some healthy or lower-risk horses.

It becomes unreliable after:

• Frost

• Cold nights

• Drought

• Plant stress

• Rapid seasonal growth

• Severe insulin dysregulation

For a laminitis-prone horse, the most important questions are not simply, “What time is it?” or “How tall is the grass?”

They are:

• Does this horse have insulin dysregulation?

• How much grass are they actually consuming?

• How high does their insulin rise?

• Is their weight controlled?

• Are their feet remaining comfortable?

Manage the pasture, but manage the horse first.

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If you are unsure whether your horse can safely graze, ASK A VET™ can help you organise their laminitis history, body condition, pasture exposure and metabolic results before you build a controlled turnout plan with your local veterinarian.